Halide-Semiconductor Radiation Detector

ABSTRACT

A radiation detector includes a halide semiconductor sandwiched a cathode and an anode and a buffer layer between the halide semiconductor and the anode. The anode comprises a composition selected from: (a) an electrically conducting inorganic-oxide composition, (b) an electrically conducting organic composition, and (c) an organic-inorganic hybrid composition. The buffer layer comprises a composition selected from: (a) a composition distinct from the composition of the anode and including at least one other electrically conducting inorganic-oxide composition, electrically conducting organic composition, or organic-inorganic hybrid composition; (b) a semi-insulating layer selected from: (i) a polymer-based composition; (ii) a perovskite-based composition; (iii) an oxide-semiconductor composition; (iv) a polycrystalline halide semiconductor; (v) a carbide, nitride, phosphide, or sulfide semiconductor; and (vi) a group II-VI or III-V semiconductor; and (c) a component metal of the halide-semiconductor.

BACKGROUND

The discussion of the background state of the art, below, may reflect hindsight gained from the disclosed invention(s); and these characterizations are not necessarily admitted to be prior art.

Halide semiconductors are a family of materials with applications including detection of radiation over a large range of energies of the incident radiation. Examples of these semiconductors include HgI₂, PbI₂, TlBr, CsPbBr₃, and halide perovskites, such as MAPbI₃. In these detectors, the incident radiation creates electron-hole pairs in the halide semiconductor by the photoelectric effect. Application of an electric bias to the detector directs the electrons and holes to the corresponding electrodes, resulting in an electronic charge in the electrodes and which signals detection of incident radiation. This electronic transport (referred to as electromigration) in the halide semiconductor is often accompanied by transport of negatively charged halide ions to the positive-biased electrode (anode). The halide ions accumulate at the anode and react with at least the metallic anode, resulting in rapid degradation of the semiconductor detector performance and its failure.

SUMMARY

A radiation detector and a method for detecting radiation with the detector are described herein, where various embodiments of the apparatus and methods may include some or all of the elements, features and steps described below.

The radiation detector can include a halide semiconductor, a cathode attached at a first side of the halide semiconductor, an anode attached at a second side of the halide semiconductor such that the halide semiconductor is sandwiched between the cathode and the anode, and a buffer layer between the halide semiconductor and the anode. The anode comprises a composition selected from the following:

-   -   a) an electrically conducting inorganic-oxide composition;     -   b) an electrically conducting organic composition; and     -   c) an organic-inorganic hybrid composition; and         Meanwhile, the buffer layer comprises a composition selected         from the following:     -   a) a composition distinct from the composition of the anode and         including at least one other electrically conducting         inorganic-oxide composition, electrically conducting organic         composition, or organic-inorganic hybrid composition;     -   b) a semi-insulating layer selected from:         -   i) a polymer-based composition;         -   ii) a perovskite-based composition;         -   iii) an oxide-semiconductor composition;         -   iv) a polycrystalline halide semiconductor;         -   v) a carbide, nitride, phosphide, or sulfide semiconductor;             and         -   vi) a group II-VI or III-V semiconductor; and     -   c) a component metal of the halide-semiconductor.

A method for detecting radiation can include receiving radiation with a radiation detector, as described above. The incident radiation is captured with the halide semiconductor to generate electron-hole pairs via a photoelectric effect. An electric bias is applied across the halide semiconductor via generation of a voltage potential between the anode and the cathode across the halide semiconductor to direct electrons to the anode and to direct holes to the cathode. A change in an electronic charge is then detected in at least one of the anode and cathode, and the incidence of radiation in the halide semiconductor is identified based on the detected change in radiation.

Halide semiconductor devices with electrode structures that are not affected (or less affected) by the electromigration of charged halide ions are described herein. The lifetime of radiation detectors made with these electrode structures can, accordingly, be significantly extended.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of a halide semiconductor device with a non-reactive electrode.

FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of a halide semiconductor device with a buffer layer and a non-reactive or metal electrode.

FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration of a halide semiconductor device with a buffer layer and a segmented anode.

FIG. 4 is a display of the recorded counts per second and position of the energy centroid in TlBr detectors subjected to gamma irradiation from a Cs-132 source versus time. The TlBr detectors have the indicated materials as the buffer between TlBr and the In metallic electrode. The performance of a TlBr detector with Pt electrodes is also shown for purposes of comparison.

In the accompanying drawings, like reference characters refer to the same or similar parts throughout the different views; and apostrophes are used to differentiate multiple instances of the same item or different embodiments of items sharing the same reference numeral. The drawings are not necessarily to scale; instead, an emphasis is placed upon illustrating particular principles in the exemplifications discussed below. For any drawings that include text (words, reference characters, and/or numbers), alternative versions of the drawings without the text are to be understood as being part of this disclosure; and formal replacement drawings without such text may be substituted therefor.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The foregoing and other features and advantages of various aspects of the invention(s) will be apparent from the following, more-particular description of various concepts and specific embodiments within the broader bounds of the invention(s). Various aspects of the subject matter introduced above and discussed in greater detail below may be implemented in any of numerous ways, as the subject matter is not limited to any particular manner of implementation. Examples of specific implementations and applications are provided primarily for illustrative purposes.

Unless otherwise herein defined, used or characterized, terms that are used herein (including technical and scientific terms) are to be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their accepted meaning in the context of the relevant art and are not to be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein. For example, if a particular composition is referenced, the composition may be substantially (though not perfectly) pure, as practical and imperfect realities may apply; e.g., the potential presence of at least trace impurities (e.g., at less than 1 or 2%) can be understood as being within the scope of the description. Likewise, if a particular shape is referenced, the shape is intended to include imperfect variations from ideal shapes, e.g., due to manufacturing tolerances. Percentages or concentrations expressed herein can be in terms of weight or volume. Processes, procedures and phenomena described below can occur at ambient pressure (e.g., about 50-120 kPa—for example, about 90-110 kPa) and temperature (e.g., −20 to 50° C.—for example, about 10-35° C.) unless otherwise specified.

Although the terms, first, second, third, etc., may be used herein to describe various elements, these elements are not to be limited by these terms. These terms are simply used to distinguish one element from another. Thus, a first element, discussed below, could be termed a second element without departing from the teachings of the exemplary embodiments.

Spatially relative terms, such as “above,” “below,” “left,” “right,” “in front,” “behind,” and the like, may be used herein for ease of description to describe the relationship of one element to another element, as illustrated in the figures. It will be understood that the spatially relative terms, as well as the illustrated configurations, are intended to encompass different orientations of the apparatus in use or operation in addition to the orientations described herein and depicted in the figures. For example, if the apparatus in the figures is turned over, elements described as “below” or “beneath” other elements or features would then be oriented “above” the other elements or features. Thus, the exemplary term, “above,” may encompass both an orientation of above and below. The apparatus may be otherwise oriented (e.g., rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein interpreted accordingly. The term, “about,” can mean within ±10% of the value recited. In addition, where a range of values is provided, each subrange and each individual value between the upper and lower ends of the range is contemplated and therefore disclosed.

Further still, in this disclosure, when an element is referred to as being “on,” “connected to,” “coupled to,” “in contact with,” etc., another element, it may be directly on, connected to, coupled to, or in contact with the other element or intervening elements may be present unless otherwise specified.

The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments and is not intended to be limiting of exemplary embodiments. As used herein, singular forms, such as those introduced with the articles, “a” and “an,” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context indicates otherwise. Additionally, the terms, “includes,” “including,” “comprises” and “comprising,” specify the presence of the stated elements or steps but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other elements or steps.

Halide semiconductor devices can be used for detection of gamma-ray, x-ray, neutron, and solar radiation. As shown in FIG. 2, these detector devices comprise a semiconductor matrix 12 that is sensitive to the incident radiation and electrodes that create an electric field in the semiconductor 12. The photoelectric interaction of the incident radiation with the semiconductor matrix 12 generates electrons and holes that drift under the electric field in the semiconductor 12 to the anode 13 and cathode 14, respectively. The morphology of the anode 13 layer can be continuous, as shown in FIG. 2, or segmented, as shown in FIG. 3. Continuous anodes 13, as shown in FIG. 2, cover the entire surface of the semiconductor 12 over which charge collection is designed to occur. Examples of detectors with continuous anodes are what are referred to in the trade as planar and virtual Frisch-grid detectors. Segmented anodes 13, as shown in FIG. 3, partially cover the area of the semiconductor 12 over which charge collection is designed to take place. Examples of segmented anodes include pixelated, strip and patterned anodes, as used in pixelated detectors; strip detectors; and co-planar grid detectors, respectively.

The electrodes 13 and 14 are generally made from metals, such as Cr, Au, Ag, and Pt. In halide semiconductors 12, the negatively charged halide ions are generally more mobile; and they drift towards the anode (via a process referred to as electromigration) and chemically react with the metallic contacts, resulting in failure of the device 10. As is further described, below, electrode structures (particularly, that of the anode 13) are provided with one or more buffer layers 16 that do not react with the incoming stream of halide ions.

The discussion, below, is further directed to the identification of non-reactive conductive electrodes 13 and 14 and buffer layers 16 that can be placed between the halide semiconductor 12 and conductive electrodes 13 and 14. We have practiced this methodology by developing TlBr radiation detectors based on a number of electrode structures described herein. The lifetime of radiation detectors with these electrode structures has been extended beyond measure over our test period, whereas devices made with metallic electrodes do not last more than tens of days of operation.

This discussion can apply to radiation-detection devices including halide semiconductors, such as TlX, BiX₃, HgX₂, and perovskites ABX₃, where A=a metal, such as Cs, and/or conjugate acid of protonated amines, such as methylammonium or formamidinum ions; B=a metal, such as Pb, Sn, Cu, Ni, Bi, Co, Fe, Mn, Cr, Cd, Ge, or Yb, and X=Cl, Br, and I, or mixtures thereof. Herein, we refer to thallium bromide (TlBr) as a representative material of this halide material family. However, such reference is only for ease in communication and is not intended to exclude other materials in this family. Halide semiconductors have applications in the detection of gamma, alpha, neutron, x-ray, and solar radiation. Purification of precursor materials over the last decade has substantially increased the carrier lifetime and, therefore, the performance of halide radiation detectors.

In semiconductor radiation detectors 10, as shown in FIG. 1, an electric bias is imposed on the detector material through electrodes 13 and 14 that contact the semiconductor 12. Once a radiation photon (e.g., a gamma ray) impinges on the detector and is absorbed within the detector, a number of electron-hole pairs are produced in the semiconductor 12—i.e., the so-called ionizing radiation event. The electrons and holes drift under the applied electric field towards the anode 13 and cathode 14, respectively. The presence of the electrons and holes is detected at the electrodes 13 and 14, and a signal is captured until such time that the electrons (holes) reach the anode 13 (cathode 14).

A major factor impeding the use of halide-semiconductor radiation detectors is the electro-diffusion of the halide ions (Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻) towards the anode 13. The negatively charged halide ions are generally several orders of magnitude more mobile than the positively charged counterparts (e.g., Tl⁺) and are believed to drift under the applied electric field by hopping through vacancies in the semiconductor lattice 12. The detector electrodes 13 and 14 are made out of metals, such as Pt, Pd, or Au, and are deposited onto the semiconductor 12 by any of a variety of techniques. The applied electric field in the detector created to direct and collect electrons and holes associated with the ionization radiation event also sets up a continuous flow of halide ions towards the anode 13. The halide ions react with the metallic anode 13 and produce a metal halide (e.g., gold-bromide). With time, the metal anode 13 chemically reacts with the halide ions and becomes eroded. At some point, the anode 13 stops establishing electric bias in the detector and the detector fails. For example, in the case of TlBr, the electro-diffusion of Br⁻ ions towards the anode metal results in rapid deterioration of the contact resulting in a short device lifetime on the order of several days.

A number of remedies have been developed to counteract the effect of the reaction of halide ions with the electrodes. First, by lowering the device temperature, for example, to −20° C. for TlBr, the electro-diffusion of Br⁻ and the metal-Br⁻ reaction are slowed down, leading to a significant increase in the device lifetime; see B. Donmez, et al., “The stability of TlBr detectors at low temperature,” 623 Nucl. Inst. Meth. Phys. Res. A. 1024 (2010). The second approach involves etching the semiconductor surface by a halide acid to produce a thin buffer before applying the contact metal. The halide acid is believed to retard the diffusion of charged ions and reduce the erosion rate of the contact metal. For example, HCl etching of TlBr surfaces and creation of a thin TlBr_(x)Cl_(1−x) layer has been shown to increase the room-temperature detector lifetime to 60 days, versus several days for a similarly fabricated device without HCl etching; see A. M. Conway, et al., “Fabrication Methodology of Enhanced Stability Room Temperature TlBr Gamma Detectors,” 60 IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 1231 (2013). The third approach is to use Tl as the contact metal; see K. Hitomi, et al., “Polarization Phenomena in TlBr Detectors,” 56 IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 1859 (2009). In a fourth approach, a team including the present inventors has shown that, by periodic switching of the bias on a TlBr detector, the detector lifetime can be increased to years; see A. Datta, J. Fiala, P. Becla, & S. Motakef, et al., “Stable room-temperature thallium bromide semiconductor radiation detectors,” 5 Appl. Phys. Lett. Mater. 106109 (2017).

The following sections are directed to materials selected for use directly as the electrode or used as a buffer layer between the halide semiconductor and the metallic electrode do not react, or react extremely slowly, with the halide ions. At the same time, they do not have a deleterious effect on charge collection during ionizing-radiation events. Examples of materials that can be used with halide crystals and that are not prone to reaction with halide ions, as described above, are listed, below.

Buffer-Layer-Protected Electrodes for Hybrid Halide Semiconductor Radiation Detectors:

Non-Reactive Electrically Conductive Electrodes:

First, non-reactive electrically conductive electrodes can include inorganic oxide conducting layers and/or organic electrically conducting layers. In various exemplifications, where an electrode includes an inorganic conducting layer, its composition can include any of the following:

-   -   (In₂O₃)_(x)-(SnO₂)_(y) (where x and y each are in a range from         0-1);     -   fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO);     -   Sn₂O₃ (with dopant: F, Mo, Zr, Pt, or W);     -   zinc oxide (with dopant: Al, Na, Mo, or Mn);     -   A_(x)O_(y) (where A: Li, Na, Mg, Al, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Co,         Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Ta, W, Pt, Hg, La, Ce,         Sm, Eu, Gd, or Dy, and where x=1 or 2, and where y=1, 2, or 3);     -   NiO (with dopant: Li);     -   TiO₂ (with dopant: Nb);     -   Cr₂O₃ (with dopant: Mg or N);     -   CuCrO₂ (with dopant: Mg);     -   Mg_(1−x)Zn_(x)O (with dopant: Al or In);     -   A_(x)B_(y)O_(z) (where A=Cu, Ag, Pd, Pt; B=Fe, Co, Cr, Sr, Ba,         Al, Ga, In, Sc, Y, or La, and where the dopant is Ca, Mg, K, or         Sn);     -   CuA_(x)Sb_(1−x)O_(y) (where A=Mn, Co, Ni, Zn, or Mg); and     -   CuCr_(1−x)A_(x)O₂.

In additional exemplifications, where an electrode includes an organic electrically conducting layer, its composition can include a conductive polymer, another conductive organic material, or an organic-inorganic hybrid. Examples of suitable conductive polymers include the following:

-   -   polyacetylene (dopants: I₂, Br₂, Li, Na, AsF₅);     -   poly(3-alkylthiophene) (dopants: BF₄ ⁻, CIO₄ ⁻);     -   polyphenylene vinylene (dopant: AsF₅);     -   polypyrrole (dopants: BF₄ ⁻, CIO₄ ⁻);     -   polythiophene (dopants: BF₄ ⁻, CIO₄ ⁻);         -   a. including: metal-oxide doped (e.g., iron oxide, MoO₃) and             undoped PEDOT:PSS or poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)             polystyrene sulfonate, and         -   b. P3HT or poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl);     -   polyaniline (dopant: HCl);     -   polyphenylene (dopant: Na, Li, AsF₅);     -   polyphenylene sulfide (dopant: AsF₅);     -   polyfuran (dopants: BF₄ ⁻, CIO₄ ⁻);     -   polyazulene (dopants: BF₄ ⁻, CIO₀₄ ⁻);     -   poly(triaryl amine); or     -   polystyrene.

Examples of organic-inorganic hybrid materials include nanocomposites in the form of nanoparticles of metals (such as Au or Ag), semiconductors, metal oxides, metal halides, and conducting polymers (such as poly(3-methylthiophene), also known as P3MeT).

Examples of other conductive organic materials include graphene and carbon nanotube (CNT) based conductive layers; fullerene (C₆₀) based conductive layers, including PCBM ([6,6]-phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester); and 2,2′,7,7′-Tetrakis-(N,N-di-4-methoxyphenylamino)-9,9′-spirobifluorene (also known as Spiro-MeOTAD).

Buffer Layers:

Electrodes can be provided with a buffer layer coating via physical vapor deposition using thermal evaporation, sputtering, atomic layer deposition (ALD), etc., of the buffer-layer composition. In additional exemplifications, the buffer layer can be deposited via chemical vapor deposition using metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), etc. In still additional embodiments, the buffer layer can be applied using a solution-based technique, such as spin coating, spray coating, doctor blading, inkjet deposition, etc.

Examples of suitable buffer layers for use between the semiconductor and a metallic electrode (with a composition selected from the above list but different from the composition of the electrode) include (a) a combination of conducting layers selected from the compositions listed, above, for the electrodes; and (b) semi-insulating layers. The semi-insulating layers can include polymers; perovskite-base layers; oxide semiconductors; halide semiconductors; carbon, nitride, phosphide, and sulfide semiconductors; or group II-VI and III-V semiconductors. Where the buffer layer is a halide semiconductor deposited on a halide-semiconductor electrode, the buffer layer can have a polycrystalline structure, while the underlying electrode can have a single-crystalline structure. Particular examples of suitable compositions for the buffer layer include carbides, such as SiC; nitrides, such as AlN, GaN, and InN; phosphides, such as InP; sulfides, such as PbS and CdS; Group II-VI compositions, such as CdTe, CdSe, ZnTe, and ZnSe; and Group III-V compositions, such as GaAs, BN, AlP, InP, and AlN.

Examples of suitable compositions for semi-insulating layers include polymers, such as polyimide; polybenzoxazole; polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA); polyvinyl toluene (PVT); and poly(p-xylylene) compositions including copolymers and nanocomposites (e.g., SiO₂/parylene C), polyacryloyl piperidine (PVP), polyethylene-based resin, a polypropylene-based resin, a cyclic polyolefin-based resin, a polystyrene-based resin, an acrylonitrile-styrene copolymer, an acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer, a poly(vinyl chloride)-based resin, a fluorine-based resin, a poly(meth)acrylate-based resin, and a polycarbonate-based resin.

Examples of suitable compositions for perovskite-based layers include (a) perovskite semiconductors, such as ABX3 (A being Cs, methyl ammonium or formamidinium; B being Pb, Sn, Cu, Ni, Bi, Co, Fe, Mn, Cr, Cd, Ge, or Yb; and X being Br, I, Cl, or combinations thereof); (b) polyimide-perovskite composites in the form of a polyimide matrix with interspersed semiconducting particles of perovskite semiconductors; (c) polystyrene-perovskite composites in the form of a polystyrene matrix with interspersed semiconducting particles of perovskite semiconductors; and (d) a conductive polymer (selected from the list provided above for the non-reactive electrically conductive electrodes)—perovskite composite in the form of a polymer matrix with interspersed semiconducting particles of perovskite semiconductors.

Examples of suitable oxide semiconductors include TiO₂, Cu₂O, CuO, UO₂, UO₃, Bi₂O₃, SnO₂, BaTiO₃, SrTiO₃, LiNbO₃, La₂CuO₄, VO₂, ZnO, and AZO. Meanwhile, examples of suitable halide semiconductors include BiI₃, HgI₂, and PbI₂.

TlBr radiation detectors have been fabricated from a number of materials from the above lists. TlBr detectors with buffer layers of TiO₂, SnO₂, and In₂O₅Sn (ITO) have been produced and tested. Thin layers of TiO₂, SnO₂, and ITO (about 2-nm thick) were deposited on similar TlBr planar detectors, and a layer of In was deposited onto these layers. Gold wire was attached to the In metal and connected to the charge-collection electronics.

FIG. 4 shows the stability of the counts and the position of the energy peak (referred to as the centroid in the figure) of these detectors as a function of time. All parameters are normalized with respect to their value at the beginning of the measurement. The change in the first few hundred hours is a normal feature of TlBr detectors and is referred to as the “conditioning” period. The performance of detectors with the buffer layers is compared with that of a TlBr detector with a Pt contact.

The measurements shown in FIG. 4 were obtained under electric field strengths of 1000V/cm and 2500 V/cm. It can be readily observed that the detectors fabricated with buffer layers of TiO₂, SnO₂, and ITO have a very stable performance over the measurement period. Throughout testing, these devices have continued to perform as shown in FIG. 4. In contrast, the device that was fabricated without a buffer layer failed after ˜100 hours.

Additional examples consistent with the present teachings are set out in the following numbered clauses:

-   1. A radiation detector, comprising:

a halide semiconductor comprising component metals and including a first side and a second side;

a cathode attached at the first side of the halide semiconductor;

an anode attached at the second side of the halide semiconductor such that the halide semiconductor is sandwiched between the cathode and the anode, wherein the anode comprises a composition selected from the following:

-   -   a) an electrically conducting inorganic-oxide composition;     -   b) an electrically conducting organic composition; and     -   c) an organic-inorganic hybrid composition; and

a buffer layer between the halide semiconductor and the anode, wherein the buffer layer comprises a composition selected from the following:

-   -   a) a composition distinct from the composition of the anode and         including at least one other electrically conducting         inorganic-oxide composition, electrically conducting organic         composition, or organic-inorganic hybrid composition;     -   b) a semi-insulating layer selected from:         -   i) a polymer-based composition;         -   ii) a perovskite-based composition;         -   iii) an oxide-semiconductor composition;         -   iv) a polycrystalline halide semiconductor;         -   v) a carbide, nitride, phosphide, or sulfide semiconductor;             and         -   vi) a group II-VI or III-V semiconductor; and     -   c) a component metal of the halide semiconductor.

-   2. The radiation detector of clause 1, wherein the anode comprises     the electrically conducting inorganic-oxide composition.

-   3. The radiation detector of clause 2, wherein the electrically     conducting inorganic-oxide composition is selected from:

(In₂O₃)_(x)-(SnO₂)_(y) (where x and y each are in a range from 0-1);

fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO);

Sn₂O₃ (with dopant: F, Mo, Zr, Pt, or W);

zinc oxide (with dopant: Al, Na, Mo, or Mn);

A_(x)O_(y) (where A: Li, Na, Mg, Al, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Ta, W, Pt, Hg, La, Ce, Sm, Eu, Gd, or Dy, and where x=1 or 2, and where y=1, 2, or 3);

NiO (with dopant: Li);

TiO₂ (with dopant: Nb);

Cr₂O₃ (with dopant: Mg or N);

CuCrO₂ (with dopant: Mg);

Mg_(1−x)Zn_(x)O (with dopant: Al or In);

A_(x)B_(y)O_(z) (where A=Cu, Ag, Pd, Pt; B=Fe, Co, Cr, Sr, Ba, Al, Ga, In, Sc, Y, or La, and where the dopant is Ca, Mg, K, or Sn);

CuA_(x)Sb_(1−x)O_(y) (where A=Mn, Co, Ni, Zn, or Mg); and

CuCr_(1−x)A_(x)O₂.

-   4. The radiation detector of clause 1, wherein the anode comprises a     conductive polymer. -   5. The radiation detector of clause 4, wherein the conductive     polymer is selected from:

polyacetylene doped with at least one dopant selected from I₂, Br₂, Li, Na, and AsF₅;

poly(3-alkylthiophene) doped with a dopant selected from BF₄ ⁻ and CIO₄ ⁻;

polyphenylene vinylene doped with AsF₅;

polypyrrole doped with a dopant selected from BF₄ ⁻, CIO₄ ⁻;

polythiophene doped with a dopant selected from BF₄ ⁻and CIO₄ ⁻;

polyaniline doped with HCl;

polyphenylene doped with Na, Li, and AsF₅;

polyphenylene sulfide doped with AsF₅;

polyfuran doped with a dopant selected from BF₄ ⁻ and CIO₄ ⁻;

polyazulene doped with a dopant selected from BF₄ ⁻ and CIO₄ ⁻;

poly(triaryl amine); and

polystyrene.

-   6. The radiation detector of clause 1, wherein the anode comprises a     conductive organic composition selected from:

a graphene-based composition;

a carbon-nanotube-based composition;

a fullerene-based composition; and

2,2′,7,7′-Tetrakis-(N,N-di-4-methoxyphenylamino)-9,9′-spirobifluorene.

-   7. The radiation detector of clause 1, wherein the anode comprises     the organic-inorganic hybrid composition. -   8. The radiation detector of any of clauses 1-7, wherein the buffer     layer comprises the polymer-based composition. -   9. The radiation detector of clause 8, wherein the polymer-based     composition is selected from a polyimide, polybenzoxazole,     polymethyl methacrylate polyvinyl toluene, and a poly(p-xylylene)     composition. -   10. The radiation detector of any of clauses 1-7, wherein the buffer     layer comprises the perovskite-based composition. -   11. The radiation detector of clause 10, wherein the     perovskite-based composition is selected from:

a perovskite semiconductor;

a polyimide-perovskite composite;

a polystyrene-perovskite composite; and

a conductive polymer-perovskite composite.

-   12. The radiation detector of any of clauses 1-7, wherein the buffer     layer comprises the oxide semiconductor. -   13. The radiation detector of clause 12, wherein the oxide     semiconductor is selected from TiO₂, Cu₂O, CuO, UO₂, UO₃, Bi₂O₃,     SnO₂, BaTiO₃, SrTiO₃, LiNbO₃, La₂CuO₄, VO₂, ZnO, and AZO. -   14. The radiation detector of any of clauses 1-7, wherein the buffer     layer comprises the halide semiconductor, wherein the halide     semiconductor is selected from BiI₃, HgI₂, and PbI₂. -   15. The radiation detector of any of clauses 1-7, wherein the buffer     layer comprises the carbide, nitride, phosphide, or sulfide     semiconductor. -   16. The radiation detector of any of clauses 1-7, wherein the buffer     layer comprises the Group II-VI or III-V semiconductor. -   17. The radiation detector of any of clauses 1-16, wherein the anode     has a segmented structure. -   18. The radiation detector of any of clauses 1-16, wherein the anode     has a single continuous structure. -   19. A method for detecting radiation, comprising:

receiving radiation with a radiation detector, wherein the radiation detector comprises a halide semiconductor including a first side and a second side; a cathode attached at the first side of the halide semiconductor; an anode attached at the second side of the halide semiconductor such that the halide semiconductor is sandwiched between the cathode and the anode, wherein the anode comprises a composition selected from the following: (a) an electrically conducting inorganic-oxide composition, (b) an electrically conducting organic composition, and (c) an organic-inorganic hybrid composition; and a buffer layer between the halide semiconductor and the anode, wherein the buffer layer comprises a composition selected from the following: (a) a composition distinct from the composition of the anode and including at least one other electrically conducting inorganic-oxide composition, electrically conducting organic composition, or organic-inorganic hybrid composition and (b) a semi-insulating layer selected from: (i) a polymer-based composition, (ii) a perovskite-based composition, (iii) an oxide-semiconductor composition, (iv) a halide semiconductor, (v) a carbide, nitride, phosphide, or sulfide semiconductor, and (vi) a group II-VI or III-V semiconductor;

capturing incident radiation with the halide semiconductor and generating electron-hole pairs via a photoelectric effect;

applying an electric bias across the halide semiconductor via generation of a voltage potential between the anode and the cathode across the halide semiconductor to direct electrons to the anode and to direct holes to the cathode; and

detecting a change in an electronic charge in at least one of the anode and cathode and identifying the incidence of radiation in the halide semiconductor based on the detected change in radiation.

In describing embodiments of the invention, specific terminology is used for the sake of clarity. For the purpose of description, specific terms are intended to at least include technical and functional equivalents that operate in a similar manner to accomplish a similar result. Additionally, in some instances where a particular embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of system elements or method steps, those elements or steps may be replaced with a single element or step. Likewise, a single element or step may be replaced with a plurality of elements or steps that serve the same purpose. Further, where parameters for various properties or other values are specified herein for embodiments of the invention, those parameters or values can be adjusted up or down by 1/100^(th), 1/50^(th), 1/20^(th), 1/10^(th), ⅕^(th), ⅓^(rd), ½, ⅔^(rd), ¾^(th), ⅘^(th), 9/10^(th), 19/20^(th), 49/50^(th), 99/100^(th), etc. (or up by a factor of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 20, 50, 100, etc.), or by rounded-off approximations thereof or within a range of the specified parameter up to or down to any of the variations specified above (e.g., for a specified parameter of 100 and a variation of 1/100^(th), the value of the parameter may be in a range from 0.99 to 1.01), unless otherwise specified. Moreover, while this invention has been shown and described with references to particular embodiments thereof, those skilled in the art will understand that various substitutions and alterations in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of the invention. Further still, other aspects, functions, and advantages are also within the scope of the invention; and all embodiments of the invention need not necessarily achieve all of the advantages or possess all of the characteristics described above. Additionally, steps, elements and features discussed herein in connection with one embodiment can likewise be used in conjunction with other embodiments. The contents of references, including reference texts, journal articles, patents, patent applications, etc., cited throughout the text are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes; and all appropriate combinations of embodiments, features, characterizations, and methods from these references and the present disclosure may be included in embodiments of this invention. Still further, the components and steps identified in the Background section are integral to this disclosure and can be used in conjunction with or substituted for components and steps described elsewhere in the disclosure within the scope of the invention. In method claims (or where methods are elsewhere recited), where stages are recited in a particular order—with or without sequenced prefacing characters added for ease of reference—the stages are not to be interpreted as being temporally limited to the order in which they are recited unless otherwise specified or implied by the terms and phrasing. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A radiation detector, comprising: a halide semiconductor comprising component metals and including a first side and a second side; a cathode attached at the first side of the halide semiconductor; an anode attached at the second side of the halide semiconductor such that the halide semiconductor is sandwiched between the cathode and the anode, wherein the anode comprises a composition selected from the following: a) an electrically conducting inorganic-oxide composition; b) an electrically conducting organic composition; and c) an organic-inorganic hybrid composition; and a buffer layer between the halide semiconductor and the anode, wherein the buffer layer comprises a composition selected from the following: a) a composition distinct from the composition of the anode and including at least one other electrically conducting inorganic-oxide composition, electrically conducting organic composition, or organic-inorganic hybrid composition; b) a semi-insulating layer selected from: i) a polymer-based composition; ii) a perovskite-based composition; iii) an oxide-semiconductor composition; iv) a polycrystalline halide semiconductor; v) a carbide, nitride, phosphide, or sulfide semiconductor; and vi) a group II-VI or III-V semiconductor; and c) a component metal of the halide semiconductor.
 2. The radiation detector of claim 1, wherein the anode comprises the electrically conducting inorganic-oxide composition.
 3. The radiation detector of claim 2, wherein the electrically conducting inorganic-oxide composition is selected from: (In₂O₃)_(x)-(SnO₂)_(y) (where x and y each are in a range from 0-1); fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO); Sn₂O₃ (with dopant: F, Mo, Zr, Pt, or W); zinc oxide (with dopant: Al, Na, Mo, or Mn); A_(x)O_(y)-(where A: Li, Na, Mg, Al, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Sr, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Ta, W, Pt, Hg, La, Ce, Sm, Gd, or Dy, and where x=1 or 2, and where y=1, 2, or 3); NiO (with dopant: Li); TiO₂ (with dopant: Nb); Cr₂O₃ (with dopant: Mg or N); CuCrO₂ (with dopant: Mg); Mg_(1−x)Zn_(x)O (with dopant: Al or In); A_(x)B_(y)O_(z) (where A=Cu, Ag, Pd, Pt; B=Fe, Co, Cr, Sr, Ba, Al, Ga, In, Sc, Y, or La, and where the dopant is Ca, Mg, K, or Sn); CuA_(x)Sb_(1−x)O_(y) (where A=Mn, Co, Ni, Zn, or Mg); and CuCr_(1−x)A_(x)O₂.
 4. The radiation detector of claim 1, wherein the anode comprises a conductive polymer.
 5. The radiation detector of claim 4, wherein the conductive polymer is selected from: polyacetylene doped with at least one dopant selected from I₂, Br₂, Li, Na, and AsF₅; poly(3-alkylthiophene) doped with a dopant selected from BF₄ ⁻ and CIO₄ ⁻; polyphenylene vinylene doped with AsF₅; polypyrrole doped with a dopant selected from BF₄ ⁻, CIO₄ ⁻; polythiophene doped with a dopant selected from BF₄ ⁻ and CIO₄ ⁻; polyaniline doped with HCl; polyphenylene doped with Na, Li, and AsF₅; polyphenylene sulfide doped with AsF₅; polyfuran doped with a dopant selected from BF₄ ⁻ and CIO₄ ⁻; polyazulene doped with a dopant selected from BF₄ ⁻ and CIO₄ ⁻; poly(triaryl amine); and polystyrene.
 6. The radiation detector of claim 1, wherein the anode comprises a conductive organic composition selected from: a graphene-based composition; a carbon-nanotube-based composition; a fullerene-based composition; and 2,2′,7,7′-Tetrakis-(N,N-di-4-methoxyphenylamino)-9,9′-spirobifluorene.
 7. The radiation detector of claim 1, wherein the anode comprises the organic-inorganic hybrid composition.
 8. The radiation detector of claim 1, wherein the buffer layer comprises the polymer-based composition.
 9. The radiation detector of claim 8, wherein the polymer-based composition is selected from a polyimide, polybenzoxazole, polymethyl methacrylate, polyvinyl toluene, and a poly(p-xylylene) composition.
 10. The radiation detector of claim 1, wherein the buffer layer comprises the perovskite-based composition.
 11. The radiation detector of claim 10, wherein the perovskite-based composition is selected from: a perovskite semiconductor; a polyimide-perovskite composite; a polystyrene-perovskite composite; and a conductive polymer-perovskite composite.
 12. The radiation detector of claim 1, wherein the buffer layer comprises the oxide semiconductor.
 13. The radiation detector of claim 12, wherein the oxide semiconductor is selected from TiO₂, Cu₂O, CuO, UO₂, UO₃, Bi₂O₃, SnO₂, BaTiO₃, SrTiO₃, LiNbO₃, La₂CuO₄, VO₂, ZnO, and AZO.
 14. The radiation detector of claim 1, wherein the buffer layer comprises the halide semiconductor, wherein the halide semiconductor is selected from BiI_(a), HgI₂, and PbI₂.
 15. The radiation detector of claim 1, wherein the buffer layer comprises the carbide, nitride, phosphide, or sulfide semiconductor.
 16. The radiation detector of claim 1, wherein the buffer layer comprises the Group II-VI or III-V semiconductor.
 17. The radiation detector of claim 1, wherein the anode has a segmented structure.
 18. The radiation detector of claim 1, wherein the anode has a single continuous structure.
 19. A method for detecting radiation, comprising: receiving radiation with a radiation detector, wherein the radiation detector comprises a halide semiconductor including a first side and a second side; a cathode attached at the first side of the halide semiconductor; an anode attached at the second side of the halide semiconductor such that the halide semiconductor is sandwiched between the cathode and the anode, wherein the anode comprises a composition selected from the following: (a) an electrically conducting inorganic-oxide composition, (b) an electrically conducting organic composition, and (c) an organic-inorganic hybrid composition; and a buffer layer between the halide semiconductor and the anode, wherein the buffer layer comprises a composition selected from the following: (a) a composition distinct from the composition of the anode and including at least one other electrically conducting inorganic-oxide composition, electrically conducting organic composition, or organic-inorganic hybrid composition and (b) a semi-insulating layer selected from: (i) a polymer-based composition, (ii) a perovskite-based composition, (iii) an oxide-semiconductor composition, (iv) a halide semiconductor, (v) a carbide, nitride, phosphide, or sulfide semiconductor, and (vi) a group II-VI or III-V semiconductor; capturing incident radiation with the halide semiconductor and generating electron-hole pairs via a photoelectric effect; applying an electric bias across the halide semiconductor via generation of a voltage potential between the anode and the cathode across the halide semiconductor to direct electrons to the anode and to direct holes to the cathode; and detecting a change in an electronic charge in at least one of the anode and cathode and identifying the incidence of radiation in the halide semiconductor based on the detected change in radiation. 